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Thứ Sáu, 30 tháng 8, 2013

ULTRASOUND and THYROID CANCER in LOW-RISK GROUP


Researchers from the University of California, San Francisco, undertook a study to quantify the risk of thyroid cancer associated with thyroid nodules, based on ultrasound imaging characteristics.
The retrospective, case-controlled study assessed 8,806 patients who underwent 11,618 thyroid ultrasound examinations from January 2000 through March 2005. A total of 105 patients were subsequently diagnosed with thyroid cancer.
It was found that thyroid nodules were common among patients who had thyroid cancer (96.9 percent) and also among those who did not (56.4 percent).
The researchers noted that there were three ultrasound nodule characteristics that were only associated with the risk of thyroid cancer:
· Microcalcifications
· Size greater than 2 cm
· Entirely solid composition
It was determined that most cases of thyroid cancer could be detected if biopsies were performed based on using one characteristic as indication for the procedure. Two characteristics as basis for biopsy would bring the sensitivity and false-positive rates lower with a higher positive likelihood ratio.
These results showed the rate of unnecessary biopsies could be reduced by 90 percent while maintaining a low risk of cancer if there were a more stringent approach for performing biopsies, researchers said.
"Adoption of uniform standards for the interpretation of thyroid sonograms would be a first step toward standardizing the diagnosis and treatment of thyroid cancer and limiting unnecessary diagnostic testing and treatment," the study concluded.
- See more at: http://www.diagnosticimaging.com/ultrasound/ultrasound-images-identify-thyroid-cancer-low-risk-group?

Thứ Ba, 27 tháng 8, 2013

CHEST WALL INVASION by LUNG TUMORS: US versus CT


ABSTRACT
Objectives—To analyze qualitative and quantitative parameters of lung tumors by color Doppler sonography, determine the role of color Doppler sonography in predicting chest wall invasion by lung tumors using spectral waveform analysis, and compare color Doppler sonography and computed tomography (CT) for predicting chest wall invasion by lung tumors.
Methods—Between March and September 2007, 55 patients with pleuropulmonary lesions on chest radiography were assessed by grayscale and color Doppler sonography for chest wall invasion. Four patients were excluded from the study because of poor acoustic windows. Quantitative and qualitative sonographic examinations of the lesions were performed using grayscale and color Doppler imaging. The correlation between the color Doppler and CT findings was determined, and the final outcomes were
correlated with the histopathologic findings.
Results—Of a total of 51 lesions, 32 were malignant. Vascularity was present on color Doppler sonography in 28 lesions, and chest wall invasion was documented in 22 cases. Computed tomography was performed in 24 of 28 evaluable malignant lesions, and the findings were correlated with the color Doppler findings for chest wall invasion. Of the 24 patients who underwent CT, 19 showed chest wall invasion. The correlation between the color Doppler and CT findings revealed that color Doppler sonography had sensitivity of 95.6% and specificity of 100% for assessing chest wall invasion, whereas CT had sensitivity of 85.7% and specificity of 66.7%. 





Conclusions—Combined qualitative and quantitative color Doppler sonography can predict chest wall invasion by lung tumors with better sensitivity and specificity than CT. Although surgery is the reference standard, color Doppler sonography is a readily available, affordable, and noninvasive in vivo diagnostic imaging modality that is complementary to CT and magnetic resonance imaging for lung cancer staging.

PSEUDOMYXOMA PERITONEI: SONOGRAPHIC FEATURES

Abstract Objectives—The purpose of this study was to analyze the sonographic features of pseudomyxoma peritonei and the ability of preoperative sonography to assess the pathologic grades of this disease. Methods—Nineteen patients with pseudomyxoma peritonei who underwent preoperative sonographic examinations were included (9 male and 10 female; age range, 31–70 years). Four patients presented with disseminated peritoneal adenomucinosis, 7 with peritoneal mucinous carcinomatosis with intermediate or discordant features (intermediate-grade disease), and 8 with peritoneal mucinous carcinomatosis. The sonographic characteristics, clinical features, and serum tumor marker levels were recorded and compared among the 3 grades. Results—Clinical symptoms and carcinoembryonic antigen, cancer antigen 125 (CA-125), CA-19-9, CA-724, and CA-153 levels were not significantly different among the 3 pathologic grades (P > .05). Ascites, scalloping of the visceral margin, invasive parenchymal nodules, and peritoneal masses were detected in all grades. Disseminated peritoneal adenomucinosis occurred without the finding of an omental cake. The presence of enlarged lymph nodes was more common in peritoneal mucinous carcinomatosis. The diagnosis of pseudomyxoma peritonei was made by preoperative sonography in 1 case. Four cases were diagnosed as ovarian mucinous cystadenoma with rupture. One case was diagnosed as a mucinous appendiceal cyst. Four cases were diagnosed as ascites or encapsulated effusion. One case was misdiagnosed as lymphoma. The others were diagnosed as celiac masses.
Conclusions—Preoperative sonography can be used to diagnose pseudomyxoma peritonei as long as radiologists are familiar with the imaging features. Although there are overlaps in the sonographic findings among the different grades, some features may aid in separating them.

Thứ Sáu, 23 tháng 8, 2013

ULTRASOUND NAKAGAMI IMAGING in TISSUE CHARACTERIZATION

TIỀM NĂNG CỦA TẠO HÌNH SIÊU ÂM NAKAGAMI TRONG KHẢO SÁT MÔ

Hình  siêu âm thang xám B-mode là công cụ quan trọng trong khảo sát  lâm sàng các cấu trúc nội tại của mô. Các giá trị điểm ảnh thang xám của hình B-mode chỉ ra độ mạnh của echoes backscattered  [siêu âm tán xạ ngược] do các thay đổi đột ngột trong trở kháng âm của mô. Bởi vì cường độ B-scan phụ thuộc vào nhiều yếu tố, chẳng hạn như tín hiệu và xử lý ảnh, hệ thống cài đặt và hoạt động người sử dụng [1], [2], [3], siêu âm B-scan chỉ cung cấp mô tả chủ yếu định tính về hình thái học, mà không định lượng thuộc tính mô.
Nhiều nhà nghiên cứu nỗ lực phát triển các kỹ thuật tạo hình siêu âm chức năng nhằm cải thiện nhiều hạn chế của B-scan trong chẩn đoán lâm sàng. Trong số đó, phân tích các tín hiệu siêu âm thô tần số vô tuyến (RF) tán xạ ngược  trở về từ mô [raw ultrasound backscattered radio-frequency (RF) signals ] là một cách tiếp cận dễ dàng và hiệu quả trong khảo sát mô [tissue characterization]. Dữ liệu siêu âm RF đã được chứng tỏ là thông tin có giá trị vốn phụ thuộc vào hình dạng, kích thước, mật độ, và các đặc tính  khác của tán xạ [scatterers] trong một loại mô [4], [5], [6]. Dựa trên ngẫu nhiên của siêu âm tán xạ ngược, phân bố thống kê toán học có thể được áp dụng cho mẫu dạng hàm mật độ xác suất (pdf, probability density function) của siêu âm tán xạ ngược để đánh giá các thuộc tính của scatterers trong mô.

Các mô hình [model] Nakagami ban đầu được đề xuất để mô tả các thống kê của radar echoes [12] sau đó được áp dụng cho các phân tích thống kê của tín hiệu tán xạ ngược backscattered [13], [14], [15], [16] và thu hút sự chú ý của các nhà nghiên cứu. Phân phối Nakagami rất phù hợp với backscattered pdf và với các tham số Nakagami tương ứng mà chúng biến thiên với thống kê backscattered [15]. So với phân bố non-Rayleigh khác, phân phối Nakagami có ít tính toán phức tạp và có thể mô tả tất cả các điều kiện tán xạ trong siêu âm y khoa, gồm phân bố pre-Rayleigh, Rayleigh, và post-Rayleigh. Tham số Nakagami đã được chứng minh  phân biệt tốt nhiều  thuộc tính tán xạ  khác nhau [17], [18], [19].

Các nghiên cứu gần đây liên quan đến phương pháp tiếp cận Nakagami tập trung vào sự phát triển của tạo hình siêu âm Nakagami. Vắn tắt, tạo hình siêu âm Nakagami  được thiết kế bằng cách sử dụng bản đồ tham số Nakagami [Nakagami parametric map].







Hình  Nakagami cho phép bác sĩ và chuyên viên quang tuyến xác định trực quan thuộc tính scatterer trong lâm sàng. Khái niệm của hình Nakagami có nguồn gốc từ giáo sư Shankar [25] và một số nghiên cứu sơ bộ khác [26], [27]. Dựa trên các nghiên cứu thí điểm, chúng tôi đề xuất tiêu chí chuẩn để thiết kế tạo hình Nakagami bằng cách sử dụng dữ liệu siêu âm RF [28], và xác nhận tính hữu dụng của nó trong khảo sát mô bằng thử nghiệm [29] và mô phỏng [30]. Trong 5 năm qua, một loạt các nghiên cứu thực hiện bởi các nhóm  khác nhau, đã chứng minh rằng tạo hình Nakagami cung cấp các liên quan với cách sắp xếp tán xạ và nồng độ trong mô, bổ sung cho B-scan quy ước trong khảo sát đặc tính mô và chẩn đoán lâm sàng. Tạo hình Nakagami  đã được khảo sát trong  phát hiện đục thủy tinh thể [29], phân loại  u vú [31], [32], ước lượng dòng máu chảy [33], đánh giá dây thanh [34], giám sát tổn thương do nhiệt gây ra  [35], [36], đánh giá hoá [37], [38], [39], và dự toán nhiệt độ [40].

Trước khi sử dụng tạo hình siêu âm Nakagami như một công cụ trong chẩn đoán lâm sàng, vẫn còn một số thử thách cần phải giải quyết. Một trong những vấn đề khó chịu là artifact. Có 2 loại artifacts xảy ra trong tạo hình Nakagami. Loại đầu tiên là artifact do nhiểu ồn gây ra, được tạo ra do hiệu ứng nhiểu ồn trong vùng không sinh âm [anechoic]. Khu vực anechoic (ví dụ: nang) không scatterers; do đó, các tín hiệu nhận là chỉ là nhiểu ồn, có thể ngăn cản ước lượng tham số Nakagami và tạo bóng mờ (shade) trong hình Nakagami. Gần đây, chúng tôi đã đề xuất thuật toán hỗ trợ nhiểu ồn tương quan (NCA, noise-assisted correlation algorithm) để giải quyết vấn đề của artifact do nhiểu ồn gây ra [41], [42]. Loại  artifact Nakagami thứ hai, hiệu ứng tham số mơ hồ [parameter ambiguity effect], liên quan đến  ý nghĩa vật lý không rõ ràng của các tham số Nakagami vì hiệu ứng phân kỳ chùm [beam divergence effect]. Nhớ lại rằng tập trung bộ biến tử đầu dò là điều kiện tiên quyết cho tham số Nakagami để định lượng độ nhạy các biến thiên trong số liệu thống kê tán xạ ngược [backscattered]. Tuy nhiên, vì hiệu ứng tập trung bộ biến tử đầu dò [transducer-focusing effect] đồng thời đi kèm với hiệu ứng phân kỳ chùm, việc ước lượng tham số Nakagami gần với sự thống nhất, không phân biệt mật độ tán xạ [density scatterers] cao - hoặc thấp – trong mô. Hiện đang cố gắng để phát triển tạo hình multifocus Nakagami để loại bỏ hiệu ứng tham số mơ hồ này trong hình Nakagami.

Theo những bằng chứng hiện tại, tạo hình siêu âm Nakagami có tiềm năng lớn trong lâm sàng. Đặc biệt, hình ảnh Nakagami chỉ cần một máy siêu âm echo xung tiêu chuẩn, và do đó tương thích với hầu hết máy siêu âm hiện dùng. Trong tương lai, hình B-mode  quy ước và hình Nakagami có thể được kết hợp trong cùng một máy nhằm  đồng thời mô tả các hình thái mô và đánh giá các thuộc tính tán xạ.

_______________________________________________________


Ultrasound grayscale B-mode images are important clinical tools for clinically examining the internal structures of tissues. The grayscale pixel values of the B-mode image indicate the strengths of echoes backscattered because of abrupt changes in the acoustic impedance of tissues. Because the B-scan intensity is dependent on several factors, such as signal and image processing, system settings, and user operations [1], [2], [3], the ultrasound B-scan only provides a primarily qualitative description of the morphology, without quantifying tissue properties.

Many researchers make efforts to develop functional ultrasound imaging techniques to improve the limitations of the B-scan in clinical diagnosis. Among all possibilities, analyzing the raw ultrasound backscattered radio-frequency (RF) signals returned from tissues is an easy and effective approach for tissue characterization. The ultrasound RF data have been shown to contain valuable information that is dependent on the shape, size, density, and other properties of the scatterers in a tissue [4], [5], [6]. Based on the randomness of ultrasonic backscattering, mathematic statistical distributions can be applied to model the shape of the probability density function (pdf) of the backscattered echoes to evaluate the properties of scatterers in tissues.

Rayleigh distribution is the first model used to describe the statistics of the ultrasound backscattered signals. The pdf of the backscattered envelope follows Rayleigh distribution when the resolution cell of the ultrasonic transducer contains a large number of randomly distributed scatterers [7], [8]. However, it should be noted 
that the scatterers in most biological tissues have numerous possible arrangements. If the resolution cell contains scatterers that have randomly varied scattering cross-sections with a comparatively high degree of variance, the envelope statistics are pre-Rayleigh distributions. If the resolution cell contains periodically located scatterers in addition to randomly distributed scatterers, the envelope statistics are post-Rayleigh distributions. This is the reason why non-Rayleigh statistical models, such as the Rician [8], K [9], homodyned K [10], and generalized K [11] models, were developed to encompass various backscattering conditions in biological tissues.

The Nakagami model initially proposed to describe the statistics of radar echoes [12] was then applied to the statistical analysis of backscattered signals [13], [14], [15], [16] and attracted the attention of researchers. The Nakagami distribution was highly consistent with the backscattered pdf and with the corresponding Nakagami parameter varying with the backscattered statistics [15]. Compared to other non-Rayleigh distributions, the Nakagami distribution has less computational complexity and can describe all of the scattering conditions in a medical ultrasound, including pre-Rayleigh, Rayleigh, and post-Rayleigh distributions. The Nakagami parameter has been shown to perform well in distinguishing various scatterer properties [17], [18], [19]. A number of Nakagami compounding distributions, which involve the Nakagami-Gamma [20], [21], Nakagami-lognormal [22], Nakagami-inverse Gaussian [22], Nakagami-generalized inverse Gaussian [23], and Nakagami Markov random field models [24], have also been developed to better fit the statistical distribution of backscattered envelopes.

Recent studies related to the Nakagami approach focus on the developments of ultrasound Nakagami imaging. In brief, the ultrasound Nakagami image is constructed using the Nakagami parametric map. The construction of the Nakagami image allows physicians and radiologists to visually identify scatterer properties in clinical situations. The concept of Nakagami imaging originated from Professor Shankar [25] and certain other preliminary studies [26], [27]. Based on these pilot studies, we proposed a standard criterion to construct a Nakagami image using the ultrasound RF data [28], and confirm its usefulness in tissue characterizations by using experiments [29] and simulations [30]. In the past five years, a series of studies conducted by different research groups have demonstrated that the Nakagami image provides clues associated with scatterer arrangements and concentrations in tissues, which complement the conventional B-scan for tissue characterization and clinical diagnoses. The Nakagami image has already been explored in a number of medical applications, including cataract detection [29], breast tumor classification [31], [32], blood flow estimation [33], vocal fold characterization [34], monitoring ultrasound-induced thermal lesions [35], [36], tissue fibrosis assessment [37], [38], [39], and temperature estimation [40].

Before using ultrasound Nakagami imaging as a reliable tool to assist in clinical diagnosis, we still have some challenging problems that need to be resolved. One of the annoying problems is artifact. Two types of artifacts occur in the Nakagami image. The first type of Nakagami artifact is the noise-induced artifact, generated because of the effects of noise in an anechoic area of tissue. The anechoic area (e.g., cyst) has no scatterers; therefore, its received signals are solely noise, which disrupt the Nakagami parameter estimation to produce unreasonable shading in the Nakagami image. Recently, we have proposed the noise-assisted correlation algorithm (NCA) to resolve the problem of noise-induced artifacts [41], [42]. The second type of Nakagami artifact, the parameter ambiguity effect, refers to ambiguity in the physical meaning of the Nakagami parameter because of the beam divergence effect. Recall that transducer focusing is the prerequisite for the Nakagami parameter to sensitively quantify variations in backscattered statistics. However, because the transducer-focusing effect simultaneously accompanies the beam divergence effect, the estimation of the Nakagami parameter is close to unity, irrespective of high- or low-density scatterers in tissue. Now we are trying to develop multifocus Nakagami imaging to remove the parameter ambiguity effect in the Nakagami image.

According to the current evidences, ultrasound Nakagami imaging has great potential in clinical applications. In particular, the Nakagami image requires only a standard pulse-echo system for construction, and is therefore compatible with most clinical ultrasound systems. In the future, the conventional B-mode image and the Nakagami image may be combined in the same system platform for simultaneously describing the tissue morphology and evaluating the scatterer properties.


 
Abstract

Previous studies have demonstrated the usefulness of the Nakagami parameter in characterizing breast tumors by ultrasound. However, physicians or radiologists may need imaging tools in a clinical setting to visually identify the properties of breast tumors. This study proposed the ultrasonic Nakagami image to visualize the scatterer properties of breast tumors and then explored its clinical performance in classifying benign and malignant tumors. Raw data of ultrasonic backscattered signals were collected from 100 patients (50 benign and 50 malignant cases) using a commercial ultrasound scanner with a 7.5 MHz linear array transducer. The backscattered signals were used to form the B-scan and the Nakagami images of breast tumors. For each tumor, the average Nakagami parameter was calculated from the pixel values in the region-of-interest in the Nakagami image. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was used to evaluate the clinical performance of the Nakagami image. The results showed that the Nakagami image shadings in benign tumors were different from those in malignant cases. The average Nakagami parameters for benign and malignant tumors were 0.69 ± 0.12 and 0.55 ± 0.12, respectively. This means that the backscattered signals received from malignant tumors tend to be more pre-Rayleigh distributed than those from benign tumors, corresponding to a more complex scatterer arrangement or composition. The ROC analysis showed that the area under the ROC curve was 0.81 ± 0.04 and the diagnostic accuracy was 82%, sensitivity was 92% and specificity was 72%. The results showed that the Nakagami image is useful to distinguishing between benign and malignant breast tumors.


LOWER LIMB VARICOSE VEIN and UVDE


Background: To evaluate the effectiveness of ultrasonic venous duplex examination (UVDE) for lower limb varicose vein.
Materials and methods: Sixty-five patients with varicose vein of the lower limb during a 2-year period were enrolled in this study. There were 21 men and 44 women with an age range from 20 to 80 years and a mean age of 60 years. All patients received UVDE to determine the causes of varicose vein, including valvular incompetence, incompetent perforating vein, deep vein thrombosis, and congenital abnormality.
Results: In these 65 patients with 80 abnormal lower limbs, valvular incompetence was observed in 40 lower limbs (50%), valvular incompetence combined with incompetent perforating vein was observed in 22 lower limbs (27.5%), incompetent perforating vein only was observed in 13 lower limbs (16.3%), deep vein thrombosis in four lower limbs (5%), and congenital abnormality in one lower limb (1.2%).
Conclusion: Ultrasonic venous duplex examination (UVDE) is a safe and effective technique for evaluating lower limb varicose veins before planning the treatment course.
ª 2013, Elsevier Taiwan LLC and the Chinese Taipei Society of Ultrasound in Medicine. All rights reserved.




Discussion
Among the methods used to treat lower limb varicose vein, surgical treatment is the standard management [6e8].
However, curative resection is frequently precluded because of medical comorbidities that render patients inoperable and cause cosmetic problems for young individuals after surgery. Under these circumstances, alternative minimally invasive therapies such as percutaneous injection sclerotherapy, endovenous radiofrequency ablation and laser therapy were developed [9e11]. The treatment course for varicose vein depends on the etiology and severity of the varicose vein. To prevent local recurrence, patients with lower limb varicose vein need to be evaluated to assist in determining the etiology.
Because of technological advances in US, several studies have supported UVDE as an efficient and valuable technique for diagnosing the presence and determining the etiology of varicose veins [3e5]. The deep venous system is not involved in patients with primary varicose vein. Patients with secondary varicose vein develop this condition because of damage to the deep venous system, usually caused by deep vein thrombosis [12]. UVDE is a noninvasive, simple and reproducible diagnostic tool that can demonstrate the cause and location of lower limb varicose vein before planning the treatment course and post-treatment follow-up [2e5].
Incompetence of the greater or lesser saphenous vein or both has been reported to be the most common cause of lower limb varicose vein [1]. Our study results also demonstrated that 50% of the lower limbs with varicose veins resulted from sapheno-femoral valvular incompetence. On B-mode and color flow imaging, the dynamic motion of venous valve was well demonstrated. On spectral Doppler imaging, the direction of flow during the Valsalva’s maneuver also could be assessed well [1,12].
In addition to incompetence of the venous valve, incompetent perforating vein appears to have a role in the cause of lower limb varicose vein.
Manfred et al [2] used ascending venography and color-coded duplex sonography for detection of incompetent perforating vein and demonstrated more incompetent perforating veins were found by ascending venography. In our study, the incidence of perforating vein with reflux in the perforators with diameters 4 mm was high (8/10, 80%). Phillips et al [13]suggested that the difficulty in demonstrating reflux with US in all incompetent perforating veins is because of the small volume and low velocity of flow involved. This may explain, in part, why the two perforators with diameter 4 mm, but without reflux demonstration on UVDE was probably incompetent.
One of the limitations of the present study was that it was performed as a retrospective single-center study with limited patients. Another limitation was that 40% of patients received conservative treatment after UVDE, the location and diameter of incompetent perforating vein could not be confirmed, which possibly led to the bias.
In conclusion, UVDE is a safe and effective examination for detection of valvular  incompetence and the anatomic location of incompetent perforating vein of lower limb varicose vein before planning the treatment course.